Mwl Marco

   INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

Biology is the scientific study of living organism and life. 

Today the scope of biology encompasses living things and their interaction with non-living things in their physical environment
Biology comes from two Greek words . Bios= life . Logos= study or knowledge.

 MAIN BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY

When we think of living things, often we think of animals and plants. These two  main branches of biology, namely:
i. Zoology: scientific study of animals
.ii. Botany: scientific study of plants.   However, in the world of living organisms there are other organisms which are neither plants nor animals; example: bacteria, fungi, protoctista and viruses. Since biology is more than animals and plants, we have other branches of biology

OTHER BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY

Bacteriology is the scientific study of bacteria.

Mycology is the scientific study of fungi.

Microbiology is the scientific study of micro-organisms.

Cytology is the scientific study of the structure and function of cells.

Genetics is the study of inheritance and variations in inheritance.

Entomology is the study of insects.

Virology is the scientific study of virus.

Taxonomy is the scientific study of classification.

Anatomy is the scientific study of structure of organisms.

Protozoology is the scientific study of protozoa.

Physiology is the study of how the bodies of organisms and their various parts functions.

BASIC BIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Life, is the state of being alive or existing. That is the ability to grow and reproduce. All living things are composed of one or more cells.Cell, is the basic unit of life. A cell is composed of nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.Organism (Living things). Is an individual living system, such as animal, plant or micro-organisms(bacteria)that is capable of reproduction, growth and maintenance of worn out tissues.Non living thing is anything that does not exist or is dead.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

i. Nutrition(Feeding). All living things take in and assimilate materials (food) for growth, maintenance and repair of worn out tissues.)
ii. Movement and locomotion: Movement is the act of changing position or posture. It can involve the whole body or part e.g. plants move by growing: roots towards source of water; stem towards light.Locomotion: is the movement of the whole body: change in position.

iii.Growth and development:-Growth: Irreversible increase in size and mass.Development: irreversible change in the complexity and structure of living things:(e.g. ability to reproduce when you reach puberty or ability to speak.)

iv.Reproduction: is the ability to give rise to the new individual of the same kind(species).

v. Sensitivity or Irritability (response).Sensitivity: ability to detect changes in the surroundings using sense organs in animals( eyes, skin, ears, nose, tongue) and hormones in plants.Irritability (response): ability to react to changes in the immediate environment e.g. temperature, humidity, light, pressure and chemicals.

vi. Respiration: is the process by which food substances are chemically broken down in all living cells to release energy, carbon dioxide and water. The energy is used for: 

vii. Gaseous exchange: process whereby respiratory gases(oxygen and carbon dioxide) are passed across the respiratory surfaces.

viii. Excretion: process by which excess waste and harmful materials resulting from body metabolisms are eliminated from the body.

ix. Death: is the end of life also it is the point at which processes and organs that maintain an organism no longer function, e.g. permanent cessation of heart beat in human. 

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING BIOLOGY

1. To understand one self better, as we are part of the living world.

2. It helps us to understand our environment better. Hence solve environmental problems e.g. shortage of food, poor health services, misuse of environmental resources (forests, water, soil, wildlife).

3. Helps us to appreciate nature. we learn many fascinating things aabout different organisms and how they function.

4. To enter into carrier e.g. medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, public health, genetic engineering.

5. To know causative agents, symptoms, transmission, prevention of infectious diseases and their treatment.

6. Living organisms provide us with basic needs e.g. food, clothing & shelter.

7. Answers for fundamental questions: when did life begin?

8. To acquire scientific skills e.g. planning, observing, experimenting, classifying, measuring, analyzing data, evaluation & conclusion which are very useful in daily life.

9 Biology studies identify and group living things 

Biology in relation to other Scientific fields.

Biology is related to many other field of study agriculture, medicine, harmacy, foresty 

1.Agriculture: is the practice of growing crops and rearing animals for food and for money. Biology research finding on crops and livestock have led to improve agricultural production. For example a selected  organisms like plants and animals for domestic purposes yield more products.

Medicine and Pharmancy: medicine is the study of prevention, treatment and cure diseases and pharmancy deals with the preparation and administration of medicine. by studying anatomy and physiology we discover drugs (medicine) from other organisms i.e.: plants-herbs, antibiotics. Study of microorganisms help to understand causes, vaccine and prevention of many diseases.

 

Nutrition: as biology study anatomy and physiology it helps us to know what composition and value of different type of balanced diet required for different age groups.

Forestry: learning about the development and caring and management of different plants( forests) and their products. Biology research has come up with variety of trees as planted to replace that have been cut down.Afforestation trees are grow well to reclaim dry land for human settlement..Reafforestation helps to preserve water catchment so that we can continuous supply of water 

 SCIENTIFIC PROCESSES IN BIOLOGY

Biology needs scientific methods of research and investigation. This can be done either by field observation (out doors) or laboratory experimentation (indoors). 

These skills include .i Observation. ii.measurement. ii.Experiment  

Observation is the study of keenly. We can study living things in many ways Example use sense of organ. 

Measurement. Scientists use specific instruments and units of measurements in their investigation.

1.Mass s is the quantity of matter in objects.The SI unit is Kilogram (Kg).It measured by using Weighing scales 

Fig. Beam balance

2.Length is the measurement of the distance or dimension from one point to another the SI UNIT IS metre (m).It measured using a ruler of tape measure
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Fig Tape measure

3.Temperature is measure how hot or cold a substances is. The SI unit is Kelvin(K), degree Celsius(^oC)or Fahrenheit(^oF).It measured using thermometer 

Fig Thermometer

4.Time is how the continuous of experience of events pass to future through the present to the past.The SI unit of time is seconds(s).it measured using Watch or clock

Fig.Stop watch

 5.Pulse rate refers to average beating of your heart. You can find how fast your heart is beating, that is your heart rate, by feeling your pulse.

How to measure your pulse rate

• Sit down comfortably on a chair with the palm of your hand facing upwards.
• Gently place the index and middle fingers of your other hand on your wrist (see the diagram below). Can you feel your pulse as a repeated throb?
• If necessary change the position of your finger until you can feel your pulse rate well. Count the number of heart beats in one minute.
• Repeat step 3 four times.
• Write down the number of beats per minute.
• Work out the average. This is what is called average heart rate per minute. It tells you how fast your heat is beating.

Measuring the pulse rate

 

 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is a way  of studying thing by testing facts systematically. it follows the steps explained below

1. Identifying the problems. This is making puzzling observation. or putting question

2. Asking questions.The scientific question will probably require answer or explanation. After gathering evidence.

3. Formulating a hypothesis. It is intelligent guess that tries to explain an observation.

4. Experimentation.is attest that is carried out under controlled condition to determine whether the hypothesis is correct or not

5. Observation and recording data. The scientists observe what happens from the time the experiment is set up to the time it ends

6.Data interpretation. The scientist analyzes the observation and data recorded

7. Conclusion. is the statement that summarizes what a scientists has learnt from an experiment, 

 SIMPLE BIOLOGY EXPERIMENTS

Biological experiments can be done to study different features of living things.       

 BIOLOGY LABORATORY

Laboratory is a special room that is specially designed for carry out the scientific experiment.A biology laboratory is place or room where biological experiment are conducted. 

Fig.Biology laboratory

 UNIQUE FEATURES OF GOOD LABORATORY

i. adequate space .is important to allow students to carry out experiments and facilitate free movement around laboratory hence reduce chance of occurrence of an accident.

ii.Proper lighting. This help students to see instruction,warning sign, safety, symbols label on reagent bottle and procedure of experiment properly.

iii.Good ventilation.It help circulation of air,removal of fumes and gases and prevent suffocation,and prevent the laboratory users from short-term exposure to toxic substances.

iv.A source of water.Water is used as solvent, for boiling mounting specimens, washing and cleaningv.Source of heating Source of heating is needed for heating during experiment.

vi.Adequate storage, For storing apparatus and specimens
 

CARING FOR LABORATORY SPECIMENS

Biological studies often involve keeping live specimens like plants, fish, insects and small mammals.

-The alive specimens should be properly looked after and have the correct food, water and surroundings.

-If they are wild, they must be returned to their respective environment after observation.  

Laboratory Rules or safety regulations

i. Don’t enter the laboratory without teachers’ permission.

ii. Never handle any chemical, specimen or apparatus without teacher’s instruction.Don’t run in the laboratory

iii. Don’t throw things in the laboratory

i. Do not eat/drink/taste anything in the laboratory
v. Listen carefully to the teachers’ instructions.

vi. Clean your bench after any experiment.
vii. Wash your hands after experiment
viii. Report all accidents and breakage to the teacher
ix. Observe the safety labels on the containers and take necessary precautions.Never use broken glass vessels.
x. Never play with gas and water taps in the laboratory.

xi. Wash all apparatus before and after use (always use clean apparatus).

xii. Extinguish all burners and turn off water tap when you do not need them.Never use laboratory apparatus for eating or drinking.Keep the laboratory clean and safe.
xiii. Always keep inflammable substances away from flame. 

 BIOLOGY LABORATORY DIFFER FROM OTHER FACILITIES

-In the Biology laboratory we can find  preserved specimens and models., cages, charts

Fig Cage

-Equipment and Apparatus for carrying out biological experiments.

-Sinks and water supply.

-Gas supply and burners (Bunsen burners and spirit burners)

-Fridge for storing specimen-Oven for drying specimens or for experiments to culture bacteria.

-It has large windows for enough supply of air and light.

-Presence of aquaria

-Has special apparatus such as microscope and microscope slides,dissecting kit and hand lens.

 Specimen: Are collected organisms or part of organisms, e.g. grasshopper, fish, snakes, plants, gills of fish, blood sample, and urine. (A specimen can be freshly picked or preserved).

Fig preserved specimen

 Models: Are man made structures like body organs, e.g. heart, liver, lungs, skeleton, kidneys human body, eye, ear. 

 BIOLOGY APPARATUS

Biology apparatus  are tools and equipment needed in order to study biology effectively. This includes      
1. Hand lens.- is used to magnify specimens. Magnification enable scientists to observe small organism. 
               

Hans lens

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2 Sweep nets- Is used for catching small flyin organism such as butterflies and grasshoppers

Sweep net

3.Fishing nets.These are used for catching fish and other aquatic animals

Add caption

4.Pooter-Is deivice that scientists use to pich up small organisms such as insects,without hurting them

-It has two tubes.The scients sucks through one tube and the organism is drawn into the pooter through the other tubes

5.Quadrat-Is awooden or metallic grid.It is used to estimate the population of organisms in area

6.Specimen bottle.This is a container where specimens are put

Fig specimen bottle

7.Petri dish-This is shallow glass or plastic containerwhere spemimens are put for close observation

Petri dish

8.Mortar and pestle.
A mortar is a small hard bowl,
A pestle is a small heavy tool used for crushing things
-Both are usually for crushing or grinding substances

Fig mortar and pesstle

9. Crucible-Is a container in which substance are heated to very high temperature

10.Dissecting kit
their contains of the following.

• dissecting tray
• Forceps for holding the spemen
• Scissors for cutting
• Scalpels for cutting
• A needle for loosening internal parts
• Pins for holding the specimens in place
• Hand lens for close viewing during dissecting

Open dissecting kit

11.Thermometer-is used to measure temperature

12.Heat sources-These are used for heating substances in the laboratory Bunsen burner

Fig.Sprit burner

13.Spatula-is used for scooping powder or crystalline substance




14.Syringes-Are used for transferring small quanties of gases or liquid



15.Watch glasses-is a shallow dish that is used as an evaporating surface or cover for beakers

16.Mounting needle-Is used to lift small delicate specimens

17.Microscope slide and coverslip-
Specimens to be observed on microscope are placed on a slide and covered with a coverslip





THE MICROSCOPE
This is a an instrument that is used in the scientific studies to magnify very small specimens so that their details cab seen

TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
i.Light microscope
ii. Electron microscope

1.The light microscope
This depends on light to illuminate and magnify tiny objects.The lesenses can magnify ibjects up to 2000times

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1. Eyepiece – Magnify objects under observation since it consists of magnifying lenses.

2.Body tube – Hollow tube attached to the arm. Its function is to hold eyepiece lens and revolving nose piece.

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3.Revolving nose piece – Holds objective lenses in place. Position of the objective lenses can be changed by manipulating the revolving nose piece.

4.Coarse adjustment knob – It lowers and raises the body tube so that a clear image is obtained.

5.Fine adjustment knob – Raises and lowers the body tube to obtain a fine focus.

6. Objective lens – Brings image into focus and magnifies it.

7. Stage – This is a place where specimen to be observed is placed

8.Clips – Hold the slide or specimen in position

9.Mirror – Reflects and directs light to the object under observation.

10.Diaphragm – Is an aperture that regulates the amount of light passing through the condenser to illuminate the specimen

11.Condenser – Concentrates light reflected by the mirror.

12.Base or stand – Supports the microscope steadily

13.Arm or limb – Supports the body tube and stage. It is used to hold the microscope

14.Hinge screw – Raises and lowers the stage.

Magnification

Magnification power is symbolized by a number and abbreviation X. For example a 10X magnifying glass magnifies an object by 10 times. An object is magnified by multiplying the eyepiece lens magnification and objective lens magnification.

Example:

Magnification = eyepiece lens x objective lens magnification

= 10 × 20= X200

A table of magnification

Eye piece lens magnification	Objective lens magnification	Total magnification
5	20	X100
10	20	X200
15	10	X150
10	25	X250
20	20	X400

How to use a microscope

• Turn on your microscope light
• Turn the nose piece so that the small (low power) objective lens clicks into place. Always start with low power lens in place.
• Place the prepared slide on the center of the stage under the clips so that the object is in the center of the opening. Make sure the cover slip is on top
• With your eye at stage level, use the coarse adjustment to bring the object and the low power objective lens as near to each other as possible. The objective lens should not touch the cover slip
• Now with your eye to the eyepiece, slowly move the coarse adjustment to increase the distance between the object and the lens. Continue this until the image is focused.

• Adjust the diaphragm so that the object can be seen as clearly as possible
• To observe the object under medium and high powers, rotate the revolving nose piece to bring the next highest objective lens into position. Make sure you hear the 'click' to ensure that the objective lens is in place. Then, focus using the fine adjustment only.

Ways of handling and carrying a light microscope

• Use both hands to carry the microscope. One hand should hold the base and the other hand should hold the arm.
• Always place the microscope on the desk or table carefully and gently and never place it at the edge of the bench.
• Keep the microscope in an upright position when using liquids or when not in use.
• Keep the stage clean and dry. If any liquids are spilled on the microscope, wipe them up immediately with a piece of tissue.
• Focus with the low-power objective lens first.
• Focus by moving the lens away from the slide, that is, by increasing the working distance.
• Consult your teacher if the lenses are dirty.(viii) Consult your teacher if the adjustments do not work freely.

• When your work is completed, move the low power objective lens into place and remove your slide.
• Keep your microscope covered when it is not in use and keep your work area clean and tidy.

2.ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

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This type of microscope uses a beam of electrons rather than a beam of light to produce magnified images. Electron wave lengths are much shorter than those of visible light. As a result electron microscopes can resolve much finer detail than light microscope can do

       

FIRST AID

First aid is the immediate and temporary care or help administered to an injured or an ill person before being taken to hospital or before the doctor comes.Every one should be familiar with the medical components found in the first aid kit and how to use them, because a very simple intelligent act may save a person’s life while detailed and ill-informed interference may make illness or injury worse.

Importance of First Aid

i. Saves life

ii. Reduces pain 

iii. Brings hope and encouragement

iv Prevents further accidents, bleeding or injuries.

v. Removes fear of death.

vi. Helps the patient to recover from shock. 

FIRST AIDER

The First Aider is a specialist who gives first aid.

Qualities of the first Aider

• She/he should have ability to assess the problem and give immediate and appropriate help.
• She/he must be able to act quickly, quietly, calmly
• She/he should be sympathetic to the victim
• She/he should be able to recognize dangerous signs and give immediate help for example detecting immediately if -breathing has stopped or is failing -there is severe bleeding-poisoning-fractures
• She/he should be able to help the injured person without unnecessary movement

Precautions to be observed by the First Aider

The First Aider should keep himself/herself safe to avoid dangers from the patient. 

Some of the dangers that s/he may face include infection by pathogens such as viruses and bacteria.So they should:

• Wear protective gloves to avoid contact with blood
• Wear eye protection
• Wear masks and gowns.

First Aid Kit or Box.Is a small box or bag in which medical components for emergency treatment are put. It is placed in a safe and accessible place. 

First aid kit

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COMPONENTS OF THE FIRST AID KIT AND THEIR USE

1.A pair of scissors, sharp knife, new sterilized razor blades, and needles;

-used for cutting bandages strings or cutting flaps of skin while cleaning the wound.

2.Assorted bandages. for tying around a part that has been injured in order to protect or support it.

3.Sterilized cotton wool used for cleaning the skin or the wound.

4.Sterilized gauze used to cover wound and prevent it from dirt but also  allow enough air.

5.Splints used to support broken bones and is tied using bandages.

6.Elastic bandages used on injured joints or dislocation.

7.Plaster band used to stick on the skin to protect a wound from dirt. It also minimizes bleeding.

8.Safety pins used for holding pieces of bandages or cloth together.

9.Methylated spirit used for cleaning wounds and surgical instruments like tongs, tweezers, and scissors.

10. Liniment can be used to reduce muscle pains.

11.Iodine solution used on fresh wounds.

12.Gentian Violet solution (GV) applied on wounds

13. like, Antibiotic solution for killing microorganism like bacteria.

14. Pain killers like panadol and aspirin used to reduce pain.

15.Pair of tongs used for picking up and holding things when cleaning wounds.
16. Clinical thermometer for measuring temperature of a sick person.

17.Jar of petroleum jelly for applying on cuts, scrapes, bruises and small wounds.

18.Soap used for cleaning wound and hands during first aid.

19. Water

 used for taking painkillers, cleaning wounds and also for washing hands during first aid.

WARNING SIGNS
Warning signs on laboratory chemicals and apparatus

Some of the chemicals and apparatus used in biology laboratory may be harmful or dangerous. Before starting using any chemical you must know whether the chemical is toxic, flammable, oxidizing, explosive or irritant/harmful. To help you recognize such dangerous substances, the containers of modern chemicals carry special chemical warning signs as indicated below.

1.Toxic

Toxic substances can cause death. They may be poisonous when swallowed, breathed in or absorbed through the skin. Examples of toxic substances include acids and alkalis, lead II acetate and potassium dichromate.

2.Flammable substances

are substances which can catch fire easily. Examples of such substances include petrol, alcohol, Thomas Baker (Phosphorus yellow or phosphorus red) and potassium metal. These substances normally evaporate fast and therefore should not be brought near open flames. 

3.Corrosive

Corrosive substances attack and destroy living tissues. They may destroy the floor, desks as well as metals, examples of corrosive substances are concentrated acids, e.g. sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and concentrated alkalis e.g. sodium, potassium and ammonium hydroxides. If by accident a corrosive substance comes into contact with your skin, go to the sink and wash with a lot of water

4.Oxidant

An oxidant is a chemical or substance which accelerates burning. Small fires can be made big in the presence of oxidizing agent. Examples of oxidizing agents include potassium permanganate, potassium chlorate, and zinc nitrate.

5.Explosive

An explosion is a forceful rapid reaction which involves random throwing of particles

6.Harmful or irritant

Harmful substances have a long term effect. They do not kill immediately. They have a cumulative effect. Therefore careful handling is required.

Irritant substances cause pains on the skin or eyes. They can endanger one's health if they come into contact with the skin or eyes for too long. Examples of harmful substances include lead chloride, lead nitrate, lime water ferrous sulphate and manganese (IV) oxide

7.Risk of electric shock- Be careful to avoid bring electrocutes

8.Fragile-Can break easily

Fig Fragile

9.Radioactve substances- Give off harmful radiation which can cause damage to living tissues

10. Bioharzards are usually substances containing microbes or other factors which could cause disease

 NOTE When working in the a biology laboratory we have to follow certain rules to ensures the safety of our selves and those around us.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN GIVING FIRST AID

First Aid is given to the victims of:-Snake bites and stings from arthropod (like scorpion, spider, bees, and wasps) and certain hairy caterpillars.Shock.Fainting.Excessive vomiting.Strains, cramps and sprains of muscles.Bone fractures and dislocations..Excessive bleeding, such From wound or nose bleeding.Poisoning.Choking.Drowning.Dog bite.Burns.

Body substance isolation, these are equipment and procedures that protect you from the blood and body fluids of the patient. These include protective gloves, eye protection, mask and gown. Snake bites.

1.. SNAKE BITE

1. Types of snakes:Non-poisonous snakes include African green snake and African beauty snake. These are of no danger to people. They rarely bite people, if they do they have no poisonous fangs and they have no fang marks.

Poisonous snake have fangs which are hollow like injection needles. They sink their fangs into the victim and inject Venom (snake poison) through them. In many cases the amount of poison is small and of no danger to life. 95% of persons survive snake bites even without antivenin.

Fig snake bite

 Types of snake bite poisoning Local poisoning causes pain and swelling around the bite and no general poisoning of the whole body and therefore no danger to life.
General poisoning affects the whole body. This occurs within half an hour or several days.
Cobra, the venom causes increasing weakness, difficulty to open eyelids and swallowing, eventually paralysis.

Viper, the venom causes bleeding from the gums and fang marks with much pain and swelling around the bitten part. Treatment of snake bites-Calm and reassure the casualty and lay them down.-Stay quiet and do not move the bitten part. The more it is moved the faster the poison will spread in the body.

TREATMENT OF SNAKE BITE
i.Calm the person and have them lie or sit down

ii Tightly or wrap a wide elastic bandage or clean cloth around the limb above the bite to stop the spread of venom in the blood stream.

iii.Keep the wound at heart level or lower in order to reduce the flow of venom to other parts of the body
iii.Remove all jewellery, for example bangles and tight clothing such as shoes and socks from injured limb
.iv. Wash the wound with soap and water to remove the venom.
-Do not apply ice orcut the wound or try to remove venom from the wound
v. If breathing stops start mouth to mouth respiration/ventilation

-Never drink alcohol after snake bite because it will increase heart rate and make poison to spread rapidly to bloodstream

.vi.Take the person immediately to hospital on a stretcher if possible. If possible carry the snake with you, this will help the doctor to know which anti-snakebite

 2. INSECT BITES AND STING

.Insect bites are very painful but not dangerous except occasionally to children. Some biting insects transmit diseases like malaria (mosquito anopheles) and sleeping sickness (tsetse fly). A person bitten by such insects should seek immediate medical help.

-Spider bites: some spiders like black widow can cause extreme pain in stomach muscles.-Scorpion, bee or wasp sting are very painful.
-Certain hairy caterpillars cause pain and local rashes.

Fig insects

 TREATMENT
i.Remove  the sting by scrapping gently using a blunt object such as plastic card.
-Do not use your fingers or sharp object because this will make the sting to release more venom into the body
ii.Wash the stung area with soap and water
iii. Apply baking soda paste on the stung area(use ratio of 1 teaspoon of water to 3 teaspoon)The sting is acidic, baking soda is a base and so it neutralize the aid
iv.Apply a cold compression on the affected area to relieve pain and swelling.
-If the victim develops allergic reactions for example nausea,diarrhea, dizziness or swelling of the lips or throat take the person to the hospital immediately

 3. EXCESSIVE BLEEDING FROM WOUND.

The principle of controlling blood loss is to restrict the blood flow to the wound and therefore encourage clotting. This can be done:

-By elevation of the injured part if it is the limb or hand

.-By applying pressure, i.e. Direct or indirect pressure.*Direct pressure is applied to the wound. This flattens the blood vessels in the area and helps to slow the blood flow. It can be by using ones hand or a clean piece of cloth.*Indirect pressure is applying pressure to the artery that supplies blood to the affected area. This is applied only in case of severe bleeding and should be applied for no longer than 10 minutes

.-If the bleeding cannot be controlled by pressure and elevation, tie a wide piece of folded cloth or a belt tightly around the area above the wounded part.

 Loosen the tie after every hour to test whether the bleeding has stopped and to allow blood to circulate. Take the casualty to hospital.

4. NOSE BLEEDING.

 TREATMENTS

-Sit the patient quietly with their head tipped forward.

-Blow the nose gently to remove mucus and blood.

-Get them to pinch their nose for 10 minutes and breathe through the mouth.

-Advise the patient not to talk, swallow or sniff.-If the bleeding has not stopped after 10 minutes, repeat the process.

-If that does not help, plug wet cotton in to the nose but leave a good part outside that it can be easy to remove the plug.

-If a person bleeds frequently, smear a little Vaseline inside the nose twice a day or sniff lightly salted water.

-Eating fruits like oranges, tomatoes, papaws and others is the best way to prevent nose bleeding. 6. Shock.Shock is a sudden violent disturbance of the mind or emotions.

 5.ELECTRIC SHOCK.

 Electric shock includes redness, swelling, scorching or charring of the skin, unconsciousness, stoppage of breathing.

   TREATMENTS

-Turn off the electricity immediately. If this is not possible, use dry wooden pole to remove the casualty away.. Be very careful to avoid contact with the electric current

-.Apply mouth to mouth respiration/ventilation if necessary.If the casualty has visible burns hold under cold running water for 10 minutes. Then apply sterile dressing

.-Do not apply lotion, fat or ointment.

-Do not break the blisters or remove any loose skin.

-If the person complains of thirst, moisten the lips with water but do not give anything to drink..Then follow the procedures of treating shock above.

6..FAINTING

It is caused by sudden fall in blood pressure, which results, from inadequate blood supply to the brain. The brain cells lack oxygen hence the victim collapses.

  CAUSES OF FAINTING.

-Bad news, eg. death of loved onesUnpleasant sights, eg. snakeShockIllnessExcessive bleeding

  TREATMENTS 

-Loosen the cloth, belt, shoes wristwatch and pants.Lay him/her down with the head lower than the feet.

-Let him/her have plenty of air, ie. Fan him/her.If the person is not breathing, 

-Artificial respiration (Resuscitation) or mouth to mouth respiration must be started at once.If situation does not improve seek medical help. 

7.VOMITING

Vomiting is involuntary ejection of substances from the stomach through the mouth.

Fig. Vomiting

 TREATMENT.

-Lay the patient on his chest with head low, tilted back and to one side.

-Give nothing by mouth except ice chips or repeated sips of cold, carbonated beverage.

-If vomiting continuous give a redehydration drink (solution of 1 teaspoon of salt, 8 teaspoons of sugar and 1 litter of water)Allow the patient to have complete rest.

-If vomiting persists, take him/her to hospital, drugs like Promethazine Hydrochloride syrup may be given.

 8. HICCUPS

Hiccups are caused by an involuntary contraction of the respiratory muscles, giving a characteristic sound. 

May be due to swallowing of air.

 TREATMENT

.In children, a teaspoonful of a weak solution of sodium bicarbonate or lemon juice.

-Application of ice on the back of the neck.Holding the breath for as long as possible

-Swallowing finely crushed ice

-.Pressing on the eyeballs not too hard.

-Drinking a glass of water upside down or while holding a pencil crossways between the teeth.Pulling on the tongue

-Breathing with paper bag held over your mouth.

9.MUSCLE CRAMPS.

Muscle cramps are the result of a muscle going into uncontrolled spam and contraction causing severe pain and restriction or loss of movement.

This can be due to lactic acid during vigorous activities or lack of salts in the body.

  TREATMENT.

-Keep the sprained part raised high.Put ice wrapped in a cloth.Massage the cramped muscle gently and apply some ointment like Deep heat or Volin.

 10.BONE FRACTURE(broken bone).

Fracture is a broken bone usually with an odd shape and painful swelling. If the bones are far out of position and the break is recent, you can straighten them before putting on a cast. 

-Never force setting of bones.Keep the broken bone in a fixed position by using a splint, strips of bark or sleeve of cardboard.

-In case of broken neck or back should not be moved by inexperienced helpers.At the health centre they will put POP. 

  11.DISLOCATION.

These are bones that have come out of place at a joint.

-Try to put the bone back into its place.

-Keeping it bandaged firmly in place so that it does not slip out again.Avoid forceful use of the limb long enough for the joint to heal completely. 

12. CHOKING.

Is when something like food stuck in the throat, and the person fails to breath.

Fig.Choking

 TREATMENTS.  

-Stand behind the person and wrap your arms around his waist.

-Put your fist against his belly above the nave and below the ribs.Press into his/her belly with a sudden strong upward jerk.

-:Lay him on his back.Sit over him/her with the heel of your lower hand on his belly between his navel ad ribs.

-Make a quick strong upward push.Repeat several times if necessary.

-If still he cannot breath try mouth to mouth respiration.

  13. Drowning

A person who has stopped breathing has only 4 minutes to live. 

-Quick action to save life must be taken.Start mouth to mouth at once before he is out of water..

-When you reach the shore, quickly put his head lower than the feet. 

-While still doing mouth to mouth, push his belly with an upward push to remove water out of the body

14.WOUND (Cuts, scrapes or abrasion and small wounds)

-Wash your hands with clean boiled water and soap.

-Wash the abrasion or wound gently with soap and clean boiled water and dry it.Add GV (Gentian Violet solution to keep it clean and dry quickly.

-Do not close the wound.

-Ensure that the person is given tetanus injection.

- Deep and dirty wound.

-Wash your hands with soap and clean water.

-Wash the wound with clean cold water, be careful to clean all the dirt.Lift up and clean under any flaps of skin.

-Put a clean gauze to cover the wound.

-Change the gauze every day. Take the person to the hospital for further medication and tetanus injection.

NB.Never put animal dung or human faeces or mud on the wound, these may cause dangerous infections like tetanus.

  16..BURNS 

Types of burns*1^st degree burns are minor burns that do not form blisters. Put the burned part in cold water at once and take painkillers.

2^nd degree burns are burns that form blisters. 

Never break the blisters. If broken wash gently with soap and cold boiled water. Leave the burn uncovered and allow it to dry. 

Apply GV to keep it clean and speed up to dry. Covering the burn with honey helps heeling. If the burn is near moving joint, sterilize a little Vaseline by heating it until it boils and spread it on a piece of sterile gauze. 

When it is cool put the gauze on the burn.
*3^rd degree burns are burns that destroy skin and expose raw or charred flesh and they cover large areas. Take the person to the hospital meanwhile wrap the burnt part with a very clean cloth or towel. Treat as 2^nd degree burn.

17. EMERGENCY CAUSED BY HEAT..

Heat cramps occurs as a result of depletion of salt in the body when working in hot weather

 Sometimes a person sweats a lot and gets painful cramps in the legs, arms or stomach.

 TREATMENTS.

-Have the person in a cool place and gently massage the painful areas. Put a teaspoonful of salt in a litre of boiled cold water, stir and drink.

- Heat exhaustion, a person who works and sweats a lot in hot weather may become very pale, weak and feel faint. The skin is cool and moist. 

The pulse is rapid and 

 TREATMENT

 -Have a person lie down in a cool place

. -Raise his feet and rub his legs

. Give salt solution to drink. Heat stroke, Occurs in old people or alcoholics during hot weather. The skin is very hot and dry. 

-Not even the armpits are moist. High fever up to 42 ⁰C. Person is often unconscious.

- Put him in the shade. Soak him with cold water or ice water and fan him. Continue until the fever drops. Then seek medical help